Why aquarium

But not even the largest oceanarium could overcome a basic contradiction: it does not recreate ocean wildlife in its natural state. When we see these remarkable creatures through the glass, we see only artifice warped by every possible means to look natural.

Not only have there been many technical improvements; some even see this hobby as an opportunity to express their creative side by adding objects such as hippos, treasure chests and plastic plants to the tank.

Or the tank can be arranged according to a theme or motif, backlit in colourful hues that come into their own at the flick of a switch. Some people even dye living anemones to make them appear more real, as Judith Hamera points out in her illuminating book Parlor Ponds: The Cultural Work of the American Home Aquarium The aquarium is the ultimate kitsch zone. These approximations of nature are clearly less than perfect.

There is no question that people should have the opportunity to appreciate the beauty of reefs. But since the pioneering work of Jacques-Yves Cousteau there has been a much better alternative: film. The makers of underwater documentaries might disturb ocean wildlife to some extent, but at least do not put it at unnecessary risk. And the fish and corals can stay where they belong. It is a myth that their memories are short; even the humble goldfish has displayed feats of recall spanning months and even years.

Aquariums, these personal water worlds, seem to fulfil different functions and fantasies; they might even be able to contain modern anxieties.

They certainly help some people to relax. Recent research shows that they can reduce heart rate and blood pressure. Others simply enjoy the power and control they have over the miniature artificial marine world in their home.

But these are pleasures built on an illusion and at considerable cost. Are saltwater fish really meant to be kept in a glass box, far from home? When I look at an aquarium, I cannot help thinking of the miserable way in which these creatures have journeyed here, and the stupid stage-set they must now call home. They are intelligent creatures. They surely recognise better than we do the travesty of those miniature sea beds, with their multi-coloured gravel. Modern biomedicine sees the body as a closed mechanistic system.

But illness shows us to be permeable, ecological beings. Nitin K Ahuja. They are spreading like branching plants across the globe. Should we rein cities in or embrace their biomorphic potential? Josh Berson. The major limitations of this review were however, the scope and quality of the current research evidence.

While the inclusion criteria were deliberately broad to maximise results, only nineteen studies were included in the review; however, despite this small number of included studies, there was substantial clinical and methodological heterogeneity, which made it difficult to draw comparisons across research findings. While the identification of these limitations is crucial to support the development of future research, these inconclusive findings are unhelpful to practitioners wishing to provide their clients with evidence-based advice or interventions.

Reflecting the field of HAI more broadly, there is a need for future research to address the discussed methodological limitations, and minimise sources of bias.

Given the particularly low strength of evidence relating to keeping fish as companion animals, there is also a need for large-scale observational research to better explore the effects of home aquaria ownership on well-being; this could be achieved through the incorporation of questions about companion animal guardianship into existing longitudinal studies [ 19 , 28 ].

Both experimental and observational research should take into consideration any mediating effects of attachment, sociodemographic characteristics, and health-related behaviours. Furthermore, as examining commonalities in qualitative research findings may be key in identifying the mechanisms underlying HAI [ 26 ], there is a need for additional qualitative research on the topic of human-fish interaction.

Aside from addressing methodological limitations, there are several opportunities for future research highlighted by this review. While most of the intervention studies were conducted within specific clinical populations, there was preliminary evidence that human-fish interaction may be beneficial among non-clinical samples.

These findings reflect research with dogs which has indicated that HAI may be beneficial in educational [ , ] or workplace environments [ ]. Future research may therefore, wish to explore the influence of interaction with fish in aquariums on student or employee well-being, although it is noteworthy that one study found no relationship between hospital medical directors self-rated health and the presence of aquariums in their working environment [ 82 ].

Additionally, as all but one of the included studies were conducted within adult populations, it would be of interest to further explore whether interacting with fish in aquariums is beneficial for the well-being of child or adolescent participants. Another potential avenue of investigation is to explore which aspects of fish aquariums contribute to improved well-being.

Research in public aquariums indicated that the abundance of fish and diversity of species may have a positive impact on well-being outcomes [ 61 , 87 ], but it is currently unclear whether this translates into home aquaria. Furthermore, as this research observed benefits associated with exposure to an unstocked aquarium exhibit [ 87 ], future research should take into consideration the presence of additional aquarium features, such as other animals e.

Similarly, consideration should also be given to the type of human-fish interaction. For instance, one study found positive effects associated with interacting with stingrays at an aquarium touch tank [ 88 ], but this interaction is very atypical in the context of this review.

Thus, while the study furthers the evidence base regarding the benefits of human-fish interaction, it is unclear whether these effects will translate to the benefits of fish aquaria more broadly. Moreover, variation also exists within more common forms of interaction; being involved in the care of the animals may for example, lead to different effects than simply watching fish swimming, and the effectiveness of interventions may be influenced by intensity of exposure, such as the duration and frequency of the human-fish interaction.

Finally, future research should consider the impact of human-fish interactions on the animals involved. At present, much research into the health benefits of HAI has focused on human well-being, an approach which has been criticised as being human-centred [ , ].

Some researchers have therefore argued for a greater emphasis on the reciprocal nature of HAI, with animals considered active participants in human-animal encounters [ 20 , ]. While research with other species typically dogs has begun to investigate the impact of HAI on the animals involved, the effects of human-fish interaction on the fish involved were largely absent from the studies in this review. One paper reported that the fish of two participants died during routine fish care and were replaced [ 86 ], but did not specify whether the cause of these deaths was known, or whether steps had been taken to prevent future mortalities.

No other studies reported whether the fish experienced any adverse effects of the interactions, and no studies directly assessed fish welfare. Therefore, future research exploring the health benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums should at minimum report whether or not any adverse effects to animal welfare are experienced as a result of human-fish interactions.

Parallel to this, additional research is needed to determine the effectivity of non-live alternatives, such as videos of fish swimming. As such interactions provide exposure to animals albeit in simulated form while eliminating animal welfare concerns, they may provide a suitable substitution for live fish aquariums. At present only two studies to our knowledge have investigated the benefits of watching fish videos [ 68 , 84 ], with conflicting findings.

More broadly however, research has identified that robotic animals may have positive effects on well-being outcomes, such as loneliness, depression, and anxiety in older adults [ , ]. Thus, it is possible that non-live alternatives to fish aquaria, such as videos, robotic fish, or computer simulations, may benefit human well-being while eliminating risks to both the human and the animal.

However, more research is needed before conclusions can be drawn. The findings of this review provide tentative support that interacting with fish in aquariums may be beneficial for psychological and physiological well-being among humans. Although findings were mixed, many studies had small sample sizes, so it is possible significant effects would have been detected given adequate power. Conversely however, many studies were subject to methodological limitations and had high or unclear risk of bias.

Therefore, more research is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. Future research on this topic should be well powered, and aim to use robust methodologies that minimise potential sources of bias. Consideration should also be given to any factors which may influence the effects of human-fish interaction, such as participant characteristics, features of the aquarium, or the type of interaction between the human and the animals.

Finally, the details of the study design, and in particular the human-fish interaction, should be clearly described to allow for replication. Neither NG or DS were involved in data collection or analysis, but both provided feedback on the protocol and earlier drafts of the manuscript.

Mars Petcare UK played no role in study design, data collection, or analysis, but approved the final manuscript before publication. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. PLoS One. Published online Jul Julien S. Mariusz Duplaga, Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer.

Neither NG or DS were involved in data collection or analysis, but provided feedback on the protocol and earlier drafts of the manuscript. Mars Petcare UK played no role in study design, data collection, or analysis but approved the final manuscript before publication. Received Jan 30; Accepted Jul This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. S2 Appendix: Protocol. S3 Appendix: Data extraction form. S4 Appendix: Quality appraisal. Abstract Background Most research into the health benefits of human-animal interaction has focused on species that interact physically with humans, such as dogs.

Objectives To explore current evidence relating to the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums. Methods Systematic searches were conducted to identify relevant primary research of any design. Results Nineteen studies were included. Conclusions Review findings suggest that interacting with fish in aquariums has the potential to benefit human well-being, although research on this topic is currently limited.

Review questions Through a systematic review of the literature, this article aims to explore the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums. The following research questions will be addressed: What influence does interaction with fish in aquariums live or non-live have on the psychological well-being of human participants? In addition, this review will aim to identify: The attitudes of human participants regarding the benefits and challenges of interacting with fish in aquariums; Any adverse effects which may be experienced by humans when interacting with fish in aquariums; Any concerns regarding animal welfare which may be encountered during human interaction with fish in aquariums.

Search strategy Systematic searches conducted in January identified peer-reviewed evidence and grey literature on the topic of fish aquarium-based HAI. Table 1 Example search strategy PubMed. Step 1 all fields : 1 "human? Open in a separate window. Inclusion criteria Based on preliminary searches, research in this area was anticipated to be both limited in quantity and varied in design. The inclusion criteria were as follows: Participants : there was no limitation on the participant populations of included studies.

Exclusion criteria Research was limited to articles published in the English language, with no limitations on date of publication. Study selection The study selection process is outlined in Fig 1. Fig 1. Reporting bias To assess for selective reporting of outcomes, the methods section of included studies was compared to the presented results to identify any discrepancies and determine whether an adequate description of the results was provided.

Strength of evidence The strength of the evidence was assessed using the Weight of Evidence approach [ 80 ] for each of the two review questions independently. Table 2 Summary of study characteristics of included studies. NR: not reported. Table 3 Summary of key findings of included studies. Four themes identified: reasons for owning fish as pets; the environment; caring for pet fish; and benefits and limitations of owning fish as pets.

Self-rated health compared to same age population , compared to medical peers , short-term health complaints , long-term health complaints : no relationship between presence of an aquarium in the workplace, and any dimension of self-rated health was found. Self-rated health short-term health complaints , long-term health complaints : no relationship between presence of an aquarium in the workplace, and any dimension of self-rated health was found.

Physiological outcomes assessed immediately after assignment and before treatment, psychological outcomes assessed before treatment only. Outcomes assessed at baseline, following induction of anxiety being informed of the presentation task and after the interaction. Anxiety STAI-S : reduced significantly more in fish, dog and plant groups than no activity group; no significant differences between experimental groups. More participants in the dog group experienced a reduction to below baseline levels than those in control group; no differences between other groups.

Outcomes assessed at baseline then after 3 and 11 days. An emotive article was read aloud to induce stress. Outcomes assessed every minute during procedure. Treatment evaluation adapted LSS : all conditions were perceived as equally relaxing. Nutritional intake assessed daily for two weeks before and after installation, then weekly for six weeks. Body mass assessed at baseline then monthly for four months. No significant changes in control group two weeks after installation.

Average body mass was calculated for three months prior to installation baseline , the intervention period weeks 3—5 , and follow-up week 10 to 3-months post-intervention. BPSD Nursing Home Disruptive Behaviour Scale : significant improvements on domains of uncooperative, irrational, sleep and inappropriate behaviours but not annoying or dangerous behaviours. Significant overall improvement. Job satisfaction Assessment of Work Environment Scale : significantly improved following introduction of the aquarium.

Treatment comfort Treatment Comfort Index : patients rated comfort as significantly higher after aquarium contemplation than poster contemplation. Also higher in both aquarium groups and the poster with hypnosis group than the no contemplation group. HR : NR. Outcomes assessed at baseline and follow-up approximately 3 months. Quality of life PedsQoL Generic and Diabetes modules : no significant effects were found for generic or health-related quality of life.

Glycaemic control A1C : significant reduction in A1C level for those in the intervention group compared to those in the control group. Younger participants 10—13 years had a significantly greater response to the intervention than older participants 14—17 years.

Outcomes were assessed via interview at baseline and six months. DBP : analysed as change from baseline to six-months for each group separately, due to differences at baseline.

Only aquarium group underwent significant reduction. SBP : no significant differences between conditions. Outcomes assessed at 5, 10, 20 and minutes, then at minutes post-viewing. No significant changes in the control condition.

Outcomes assessed at baseline phase 1 , after watching video phase 2 , and after reading task phase 3. No difference between animal videos groups. Valence Feeling Scale : a significant effect of time showed that valence increased with viewing; there was no significant effect of stocking level.

Arousal Felt Arousal Scale : a significant effect of time showed that arousal significantly decreased with viewing; there was no significant effect of stocking level.

HR : a significant effect of stocking level indicated that participants in the two stocked conditions had greater reductions in HR than those in unstocked condition. Perceived restorativeness : built environments rated lower than all others, aquariums rated higher than sub-aquatic and green environments, aquatic environments rated higher than aquariums.

Physiological outcomes assessed throughout, psychological outcomes assessed pre- and post-interaction. Hedonic tone : significantly improved from pre- to post-touch.

Energetic arousal : significantly increased from pre- to post-touch. Tense arousal : significantly decreased from pre- to post-touch. All assessed using the UMACL HR : significant quadratic trends showed that HR became more elevated and less variable during touch, then began to return to normal towards the end of the touch period but did not reach baseline levels. Fish as companion animals Two studies were conducted with individuals who currently kept fish as companion animals to gain an understanding of their experiences.

Correlational studies One study used a correlational design to assess whether the presence of aquariums in the workplaces of hospital medical directors was associated with their self-rated health. Intervention studies Sixteen studies involved novel interactions with fish in aquariums, however, four of these related specifically to public aquariums so are discussed separately below.

Loneliness Riddick [ 60 ] used the UCLA Loneliness Scale to assess whether loneliness improved for participants who were given a fish versus those who received visits from the researcher, or had no intervention.

Glycaemic control One study assessed whether pairing fish care duties with diabetes self-management tasks could lead to improved glycaemic control for adolescents with type 1 diabetes mellitus [ 86 ].

Secondary outcomes Most intervention studies reported procedures that were in place to ensure animal welfare. Public aquariums Four studies reported in three papers related specifically to public aquariums.

Secondary outcomes Of the studies relating to public aquariums two involved live animals; both used procedures which reflected typical visitor behaviours, and so animal welfare concerns were unlikely to be increased as a result of the research.

Quantitative intervention studies The remaining sixteen studies were assessed using the NICE Quality Appraisal Checklist for quantitative intervention studies [ 78 ]. Reporting biases Evidence of potential selective reporting was identified in some studies.

Strength of evidence Strength of evidence assessments were made using the Weight of Evidence approach [ 80 ]. Table 4 Weight of evidence assessments for psychological outcomes. Table 5 Weight of evidence assessments for physiological outcomes. Discussion The purpose of this review was to investigate the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums. Strengths The major strength of this review is that it is the first attempt to systematically examine the psychological and physiological benefits of interacting with fish in aquariums.

Limitations There are a number of limitations to this review which should be acknowledged. Future directions Reflecting the field of HAI more broadly, there is a need for future research to address the discussed methodological limitations, and minimise sources of bias.

Conclusion The findings of this review provide tentative support that interacting with fish in aquariums may be beneficial for psychological and physiological well-being among humans. PDF Click here for additional data file. S2 Appendix Protocol. S3 Appendix Data extraction form. S4 Appendix Quality appraisal.

Data Availability All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. References 1. Pet ownership, but not ACE inhibitor therapy, blunts home blood pressure responses to mental stress. Pet ownership and cardiovascular risk: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Dog ownership and the risk of cardiovascular disease and death—a nationwide cohort study.

Sci Rep. Pet ownership may attenuate loneliness among older adult primary care patients who live alone. Aging Ment Health. The power of support from companion animals for people living with mental health problems: a systematic review and narrative synthesis of the evidence. BMC Psychiatry. Reasons for companion animal guardianship pet ownership from two populations. Soc Anim. Expectations for dog ownership: perceived physical, mental and psychosocial health consequences among prospective adopters.

Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: definitions and theoretical foundation s. In: Fine A, editor. Handbook on animal-assisted therapy. London: Academic Press; Nimer J, Lundahl B. Animal-assisted therapy: a meta-analysis. A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of animal-assisted therapy on psychosocial outcomes.

Animal assisted intervention: a systematic review of benefits and risks. Eur J Integr Med. Effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Complement Ther Med. April; 22 2 — Animal-assisted therapy in adults: A systematic review. Complement Ther Clin Pract. August; 32 — Bao KJ, Schreer G. Pets and happiness: examining the association between pet ownership and wellbeing.

Survival following an acute coronary syndrome: a pet theory put to the test. Acta Psychiatr Scand. Dog ownership and mortality in England: a pooled analysis of six population-based cohorts. Am J Prev Med. Keeping a home aquarium should bring you peace, not anxiety. With proper setup and a regular maintenance schedule, you can enjoy all the health benefits your aquarium has to offer while minimizing the stress of keeping your tank clean and healthy.

Written by Kate Barrington Updated September 24, In stressful times, having a home aquarium could be a benefit. Read on to learn about the top 6 health benefits of keeping a fish tank at home.

The saltwater aquarium industry takes millions of fish from oceans around the world each year. The pet trade gets a bad rap for exploiting wild animals but sometimes the opposite is true. Popular as prizes at carnivals and state fairs, goldfish are known for their orange-gold coloration, but they actually come in many colors and patterns. Discover five common myths about the beautiful betta freshwater fish. When you see signs of stress in your fish, you can then take steps to identify the source of that stress and then to resolve it before it becomes a major issue.

Species Spotlight: The Axolotl. If you are looking for a unique species around which to center your next tank, consider the axolotl.

Cleaning your aquarium is a necessity in order to keep your fish healthy. The Oldest Aquarium Fish. Some fish are simply going to live longer than others, but what species have the longest lifespans? If you have ever brought a group of corydoras catfish home from the store to find that they all died in transport, this article will be incredibly enlightening.

Modern advances in technology affect every industry - even the aquarium hobby. Trending: Jellyfish in the Home Aquarium. You have probably seen your fair share of jellyfish in zoo aquariums, but did you know that it is possible to keep these creatures as pets? A species of Corydoras catfish that was discovered in the s has finally been officially described and named.

Betta Fish Trending Topics for January The betta fish is and will forever be one of the most popular types of aquarium fish. Advances in modern technology have changed the world we live in, but how has it affected the aquarium hobby? When it comes to aquarium filtration there are many options to choose from. An aquarium makes a great focal point and gathering place in the home and provides a fun activity for the whole family. Aquariums teach kids about nature and caring for one helps them learn responsibility.

Placing one in a child's bedroom can help them fall asleep at night. Viewing an aquarium is also a great alternative to playing video games or watching TV. And if you rent, most landlords that don't allow dogs or cats will be fine with an aquarium.

In the office or workplace, an aquarium can boost morale, which in turn has a positive effect on productivity.